Bridge expansion joints †performance and materials

Bridge expansion joints – performance and materials 1.1 Introduction Expansion joints are used in bridges to allow movements like expansion and contraction between the bridge deck spans and abutments. These movements are caused due to temperature, soil settlements, vehicle acceleration and other reasons (Klaiber, et al., 1987 and Dagher, et al., 1993 as cited in Thippeswamy, 2002). Expansion joints are subjected to severe loading due to the direct impact of the wheels. They are a very important component of a bridge structure and if carefully designed, properly installed and reasonably maintained will give a trouble free performance for many years. Though joints are made of various materials like rubber, silicone and polymer they deteriorate since they are constantly exposed to impact, vibration of traffic and natural elements like water, dust, ultra violet rays and ozone (Chang Lee 2002). The durability of expansion joints is a major concern to bridge owners. The maintenance cost of joints is relatively high than the initial cost .This led to the de sign of jointless bridges. Jointless bridges do not develop stress due to corrosion of joints, accumulation of debris and differential elevation of joints (Thippeswamy, 2002). The behaviour of the jointless bridges not known and the designs being complicated are not implemented in spite of their advantages. This literature review deals with: characteristics of a good expansion joint that must be noted while design a joint, defects observed in expansion joints, survey studies conducted on existing joints to study their behaviour and some manufactures of bridge expansion joints in the industry. Studies on improving the performance of expansion joints is conducted, research on reducing the cost of maintenance of the joints should be conducted. 1.2 Characteristics of a good expansion joint A bridge expansion joint for proper functioning must have the ability to: accommodate movements in vertical and horizontal direction; withstand applied loads; resist skid and corrosion; operate silently with less maintenance (Lee, 1994). Price (1984) suggests that the performance of a joint is influenced by structural movements of the joint in horizontal and vertical direction, traffic loading, materials used, condition of the substrate, weather and temperature during joint installation, workmanship and performance of bearings. 1.3 Commonly observed joint defects Guzaltan (1993) as cited in (Chang Lee 2002) studied some commonly observed defects in expansion joints. They include damaged seals, accumulation of debris in the joint components, rusting of metal plates and nuts, cracking of concrete, corrosion of steel reinforcement, water leakage, improper joint alignment and joint vibration during vehicle passage. Fincher (1983) as cited in (Chang Lee 2002) presents the results of a survey conducted by Federal Highway Administration during a five year evaluation period which demonstrated that 60% of the expansion joints examined leaked. Additionally, Wallbank (1989) as cited in (Lee, 1994) explains that in a survey conducted on two hundred bridges by The London Department of Transport, the deterioration of the expansion joints was caused due to leaking and faulty drainage details. Chang and Lee (2002) conducted a study to observe the performance of joints in Indiana and found that some joints failed due to cracks in the seal and suggested test ing it before installation. Fault tree modelling was used for qualitative explanation of bridge element interaction but could be used only for catastrophic failures (Attoh- Okine Bowers 2006). These models are not applicable to bridges since they fail over an extended period of time. Fault tree models were also prepared by LeBeau and Wadia-Fascetti (2000) and Sianipar and Adams (1997) as cited in (Attoh- Okine Bowers 2006). A new deterioration modelling based on belief networks that effectively capture and illustrate the hierarchical, interaction and uncertainty factors present in bridge deterioration was developed by Attoh- Okine and Bowers (2006). Belief networks are also called Bayesian belief networks and are based on Bayes theory. The belief network approach is more appropriate than fault tree analysis since it can be used to investigate the components of a bridge including deck material, girders, bearings and abutments have a great influence on deterioration. 1.4 Studies conducted on the performance of existing expansion joints Chang and Lee (2002) conducted a study to observe the performance of the different joints used in the highway bridges in Indiana. Five popularly used joints were: compression seal (B.S), strip seal (S.S), integral abutment (I.A), poured silicone (X.J.S) and polymer modified asphalt (P.M.A). The data was obtained from questionnaire survey, analysis of Indiana Department of Transportation (INDOT) roadway management data and expert interviews. Questionnaire survey was conducted by giving questionnaires to the state bridge inspectors and engineers around Indiana. The problems with joints were encountered and possible improvements were suggested. The analysis of historical data using logistic regression approach found that S.S joint had the best performance. The expert interviews consider I.A joint to offer good results and suggest improvement of B.S and S.S joints. An inspection campaign was conducted on 150 expansion joints of 71 road bridges in Brisa, Portugal where the maintenance cos t reached a peak of 25% (Lima Brito 2009). The joints installed within the traffic lane of the bridge were considered. The expansion joints were characterised based on their type, and age of the bridge. It was recorded that the joints used more frequently included reinforced elastomeric cushion joints, elastomeric flexible strips, and asphaltic plug joints. The data obtained from the inspection campaign was statistically analysed. The results showed that joints that were replaced mostly frequently were elastomeric joints and that different joints have specific maintenance needs. The transition strip and the anchorage cavities of the expansion joint are the parts that require more maintenance. It was also observed that the errors during installation and lack of maintenance caused pathology of the joint. The results of campaign conducted show that there was a lot of improvement in the commercial expansion joints and suggests investigation on the new or improved systems and materials. It also suggested that simple systems with fewer components are more reliable and require less maintenance. Asphalt bridge expansion joints when used in cold countries cracked within the first two years. To improve the performance the commercial MEIJIA asphalt binder was modified with polymers: thermoplastic rubber and rubber (Yu, et al., 2009). The polymers were used in various combinations, and their performance at low temperatures is evaluated by conducting tests including: ductility, penetration, indirect tension and bending tests. The data from ductility and penetration tests performed on binders indicated that the strength and deformation capacity at low temperatures improved. Four expansion joints made with the modified asphalt mixtures were installed on two bridges in a cold region and found that the joints showed good performance. 1.5 Assessment of expansion joint performance using monitored data A study was conducted by to develop a procedure for verification of the design and evaluating the condition of expansion joint by monitoring joint displacement and bridge temperature on a long term (Ni, et al., 2002). This method was applied to Ting Kau, cable stayed bridge in Hong Kong. The service life and replacement of joint depends on the cumulative displacement. An accurate prediction of the cumulative displacement will provide the time interval for joint inspection or joint replacement. Monitoring the thermal movements at the expansion joints and comparing them with the design values provide verification on design. The whole system had more than 230 sensors like anemometers, accelerometers, displacements transducters to measure displacements located at the ends of the deck, temperature sensors, strain gauges, weight in motion sensors and global positioning system. A good correlation between the movement of the expansion joints and effective temperature was observed. The daily average cumulative displacements of the expansion joints in the bridge are much less than design values. Additionally monitoring systems had been implemented on many bridges in different countries by (Andersen Pedersen 1994; Cheung et al. 1997; Barrish et al. 2000; Sumitro et al. 2001; Mufti 2002; Koh et al. 2003; Wong 2004) as cited in (Ni et al. 2002). 1.6 Effect of SSI and ground motion spatial variation Chouw and Hao (2008(a)) studied the effects of soil-structure interaction (SSI) and ground motion spatial variation effect on bridge pounding responses for bridges with a traditional expansion joint between adjacent girders. The study was conducted on two adjacent bridge frames. It was confirmed that structures that are built on stiff soils may experience larger pounding forces than those on soft soils. It was also examined that decrease of ground motion correlation caused larger pounding responses. Numerical simulation was conducted by nonlinear dynamic response analysis and investigated pounding mitigation and prevention of unseating in the highway bridges due to seismic forces (Raheem, 2009). It was observed that seismic pounding generates significantly higher magnitude and short duration acceleration pulses than typically assumed design magnitude. This results in severe impact forces that damage structural members like the deck or pier. Additionally the effects of SSI and bridge pounding response for bridges with modular expansion joint system (MEJS) were observed (Chouw Hao 2008(b)). It was concluded that the girders with a large gap of a MEJS caused stronger impact forces. It was found that significance of nonuniform ground motions depends on the properties of the ground motions, subsoil and the structures. 1.7 Types of Expansion Joints 1.7.1 Selection of joint type The type of joint is selected depending on the movement expected for serviceability limit state. More than one type of joint may be suitable for a particular range of movement. The movement range that should not be exceeded for each expansion joint is given in Table 1. Table 1. Selection of joint type (Department of Transport, 1989) Joint Type Total acceptable longitudinal movement Maximum acceptable vertical movement (mm) Maximum (mm) Minimum(mm) Buried Joint under continuous surfacing 5 20 1.3 Asphaltic plug joint 5 40 3 Nosing joint with poured sealant 5 12 3 Nosing with preformed compression seal 5 40 3 Reinforced Elastomeric 5 * 3 Elastomeric in metal runners 5 * 3 Cantilever comb or tooth joint 25 * 3 * Maximum value varies according to manufacturer or joint type 1.7.2 Modular bridge expansion joint Modular expansion joint is used when the joint movement exceeds 100mm.The modular expansion joint has many advantages including: water-tightness, corrosion protection, great potential as they increase the life of concrete and steel bridges (Crocetti Edlund 2003), greater movements in translation and rotation. It can accommodate the three dimensional movements without generating additional stresses or strains in the load-bearing members or in adjacent bridge or abutment structures. 1.7.2.1 Noise generation in a modular expansion joint The traffic generates more noise on bridges than on roads, as sound is produced on the top and bottom of the deck. The noise generated from a modular expansion joint under vehicle passage is louder than those of ordinary expansion joints (Ravshanovich, et al., 2007). The mechanism of noise generation for a modular bridge expansion joint which causes noise pollution was studied by conducting tests on a full scale model of a joint. A series of car-running experiments were conducted on the joint and studied its noise and vibration characteristics. A modal analysis of the joint is performed using finite element modelling. It was observed that the frequency of the noise generated above the joint varies from 500 to 800Hz due to sudden change in air pressure within the gap formed by rubber sealing with the middle beams. The frequency is less than 200Hz below the joint caused by the sound radiation due to the bending vibration modes of the middle beams being excited by an impact force from t he car wheels. Likewise a numerical investigation was conducted on a modular expansion joint of an expressway bridge to understand the generation and radiation mechanism (Ghimire, et al., 2009). The numerical analysis was conducted using finite element method. 1.7.2.2 Performance of Modular expansion joint Modular joints have the ability to cope with large thermal expansion and contraction of large bridges (Chouw Hao 2008(b)). They are capable of preventing girder pounding during strong earthquakes. A complex joint was modelled to study the dynamic response of a modular bridge expansion joint (Crocetti and Edmund, 2003). The vertical loads perpendicular to the roadway plane were considered. Horizontal loads were eliminated since the excitation mechanism was sophisticated and the behaviour of the joint in the horizontal direction was stochastic in character. A single fatigue test was performed. Data from the field tests including measurement of wheel load distribution factors, horizontal and vertical wheel loads, determination of damping and natural frequencies were obtained from Lehigh University, Bethlehem, Pennsylvania. The result of the fatigue test conducted agreed with the S-N curve plotted for welded connection between the support bar and the centre beam suggested by Dexter, et al. (1997) cited in (Crocetti Edmund 2003). Additionally an experimental investigation was performed to study the fatigue performance of a welded multiple support bar modular bridge expansion joint (Chaallal, 2006). The welded multiple support bar modular bridge expansion joint was used in the rehabilitation of Jacques Cartier Bridge in Montreal. The vertical and horizontal loads were considered unlike (Crocetti Edmund 2003) which is more practical since the expansion joints are subjected to both vertical and horizontal loads. Experimental tests were conducted on three subassemblies of the modular joint for various loads and S-N curve was plotted. 1.8 Manufacturers of Expansion joints 1.8.1 The Bridge Joint Association Bridge Joint Association (BJA) prepares standards and current practice sheets. It comprises of manufacturers and installers of bridge expansion joints which include: ASL CONTRACTS LTD, FREYSSINET LTD, GRACE CONSTRUCTION PRODUCTS LTD, Highways Maintenance Specialists LTD and MAURER LTD (Bridge Joint Association, 2009). 1.8.2 Watson Bowman Acme Corporation Watson Bowman Acme Corporation (WBA) found in 1950 isa recognized innovator in the development and manufacture of expansion joint controlsystems. Some of the joints manufactured by WBA include: Wabo ®Crete SiliconeSeal This is a high performance expansion joint system that uti ­lizes a two-part sealant between elastomeric concrete headers made of Wabo ®Crete II capable of absorbing impact loads. The headers are coupled with Wabo ®SiliconeSeal make it an ideal expansion joint system that is adopted in the industry for new construction or repair of existing joints. Wabo ®Crete II elastomeric concrete is widely used in header applications for bridges and parking structures. Polyurethane is used in the header material to minimize edge spalling associated with high impact loads while achieving superior bonding capabilities. The Wabo ®SiliconeSeal is a cold applied self levelling sealant requires no priming which simplifies acceler ­ates the installation process. Wabo ®Crete SiliconeSeal system is licensed under US Patent No 5.190.395. This joint is adopted for applications with a maximum movement range of +100% / -50% of the joint gap (Watson Bowman Acme, 2007) . Wabo ®Crete FlexFoam This is an armorless expansion joint system that is designed with closed-cell foam joint seal installed with epoxy adhesive between an impact absorbing elastomeric concrete header. The high impact absorbing, ambient cured and self-levelling properties of the Wabo ®Crete II joint header allows for the joint system to mono ­lithically bond to the deck creating a watertight system. Using an elastomeric concrete joint header achieving superior bonding ca ­pabilities and minimizing edge spalling (Watson Bowman Acme, 2007). Wabo ®Expandex This is a flexible asphaltic plug joint system designed to accommodate minimum structure movement while providing a smooth transition between the ap ­proach pavement and the bridge deck. Wabo ®Expandex is used typically at abut ­ments or asphalt overlays due to its unique asphalt compatibility. The system combines the use of a traffic bearing plate with special aggregate reinforced modified elastomeric material (Watson Bowman Acme, 2007). Jeene ® This joint system comprises of a neoprene profile, which is air-pressurized and bonded in place with a specially formulated epoxy ad ­hesive. With properly installation, the Jeene ® joint system will not tear away, protrude out of, or slip from its original position on exposure to repeated mechanical or thermal movements. Complete adhesion of the epoxy to the profile and joint wall is achieved due to the air inflation during installation. Jeene ® is the most durable, versatile, cost-effective and watertight expansion joint (Watson Bowman Acme, 2007). Wabo ®HSeal This is a pre-compressed elastomeric coated expansion joint system de ­signed to provide a permanent weather tight seal. The system is sealed in place with an epoxy, which allows it to accommodate horizontal, vertical, and skew expansion joint movements. Wabo ®HSeal consists of a micro-cell, stable to UV, polyurethane foam impregnated with a hydrophobic polymer and topped with a traffic grade elastomeric coating. The im ­pregnated foam provides a valuable secondary water tight seal in case the primary elastomeric coating is damaged. This system is supplied in pre-compressed sticks for easy installation (Watson Bowman Acme, 2007). Wabo ®Flex This is a molded rubber cushion expansion joint which is designed to accommodate structure movements from 2 inches up to 13 inches. In Wabo ®Flex system the molded rubber cushions are steel reinforced and imbedded with corrosion-resistant aluminium wear plates. Tongue and grooves at the end of each rubber cush ­ion ensure a watertight connection and prevent uplift or separation (Watson Bowman Acme, 2007). Wabo ®TransFlex This is an original reinforced elastomeric molded rubber expansion joint system. All sections feature tongue and groove fittings for tight end-to-end mating across decks and at curbs and are steel reinforced. It can be installed in new decks, or in older structures on rehabilitation projects. These joint systems readily adapt to skew angles. Wabo ®TransFlex system will accommodate anticipated thermal movements reject debris and create a level, smooth-riding, wear-resistant surface if properly installed (Watson Bowman Acme, 2007). Wabo ®Seismic WeatherSeal This is a pre-compressed elastomeric coated ex ­pansion joint system that works under its own constant internal pressure to provide a weather resistant seal. The system contains an open-cell foam seal im ­pregnated with a hydrophobic polymer sealing compound. Wabo ®Seismic WeatherSeal can be used on applications which cause simple thermal movements or on applications where seismic movement is anticipated. The Wabo ®Seismic WeatherSeal system is recommended for use on all in ­terior and exterior wall, ceiling and soffit expansion joint applications (Watson Bowman Acme, 2007). The joint systems manufactured by Watson Bowman Acme Corporation are compared as shown in Table 2, with respect to their features and their recommended area of implementation. Table 2: Comparison between the various joints manufactured by WBA. Joint Features Recommended for Wabo ®Crete SiliconeSeal Watertight system, rapid installation, Cold applied, Expansion joint applications with a maximum movement range of +100% / -50% of the joint gap Horizontal expansion joint applications on bridges and highways. Wabo ®Crete FlexFoam Accommodates movement cycle through compression and tension, Minimizes dirt or debris accumulation Horizontal expansion joint applications on bridges and interstate highways. Wabo ®Expandex. Provides smooth riding surface, can be milled or planed during resurfacing operations, joint openings with movements up to +/- 0.75 at time of installation Sealing joints on secondary highway bridge structures. Joint Features Recommended for Jeene ® . Accommodates forces associated with multi-directional movements, resists hydrostatic pressure, Accommodates thermal movement Sealing joints on bridges roadways and tunnels. Wabo ®HSeal Can accommodate horizontal, vertical and skew expansion joint movements, easy installation Sealing joints on bridges, sound wall barriers Wabo ®Flex maximum friction, prevents debris accumulation, reduces deflection under traffic load ­ing, maximum movement of 13 inches Bridge decks and ramps, Low height joint sealing restrictions Wabo ®TransFlex Watertight connection, prevent uplift or separation maximum movement of 13 inches Low height joint sealing restrictions bridges, decks and ramps Wabo ®Seismic WeatherSeal seismic movement capability, weather resistant, self-expanding non-laminated construction, accommodates movement up to +/- 50% Stadiums, parking garages, Replacing failed joints 1.8.3 Universal Sealants Limited Universal Sealants limited (USL) focuses on construction of bridges, tunnels, rail and other major structures. It manufactures supplies and installs specialist construction products including: bridge expansion joints; membranes for bridge deck waterproofing; protective coatings; concrete repair and car park refurbishment work. Some expansion joints offered by USL include: Uniflex expansion joints This system uses a butyl rubber membrane, bonded to the concrete and asphalt surfaces with Uniflex epoxy adhesive to provide an efficient and permanent joint that is easily installed. The system accommodates a variety of conditions from those experienced on an asphalt-covered traffic-free roof, to bridge decks with sheet membrane, spray on coating or asphalt waterproofing, also it can be used with two layer mastic asphalt or brick paving systems. The Uniflex system is chemically inert and completely impervious to water and water vapour. In buried joints the membrane is completely protected by the wearing surface. Uniflex membrane will not deteriorate during its service and the combination of a simple design and proven components makes the system naturally long-lasting and well up to the requirements of modern building and civil engineering practice (Universal Sealants UK Ltd, 2009). Febajoint This joint is fully registered with the Highways Agency, Scottish Executive and Welsh Assembley (BD 33/94: Joint Type 2) suitable for all class roads and motorways. The joint is nominally 500mm wide and not less than 100mm deep which will provide optimum movement capacity of +/- 20mm. The materials are applied hot and in a fluid condition, with temperatures up to 180 °C. Careful considerations should be made by the engineer before using this joint. Binder compounds use thermoplastic materials which contain polymer modified bitumen, mineral fillers and chemical additives (Universal Sealants UK Ltd, 2009). FEBA HM expansion joints The system is fully registered with the UK Highways Agency for type 2 application. It is a high modulus flexible, waterproof asphaltic plug joint. The main feature of this system includes a resistance to wheel tracking. This joint is suitable for a maximum horizontal design movement of  ±20mm. The FEBA HM system should be considered in places of high traffic volumes, constant standing traffic or heavy loading. The materials are applied hot and in fluid condition, with temperatures up to 180 °C. Binder compounds are classified as thermoplastic materials and contain polymer modified bitumen, mineral fillers and chemical additives (Universal Sealants UK Ltd, 2009). Nosing Joint (NJ) system This joint system is an ideal for maintenance situations and has been developed to provide a whole life economic solution for applications where asphalt plug joints are unsuitable and is registered with the UK Highways Agency, The Scottish Executive and Welsh Assembly. A surface mounted nosing joint with an elastomeric insert bonded to the rapid curing elastomeric compound known as Britflex ® Resin Mortar (Universal Sealants UK Ltd, 2009). The Transflex, Waboflex and Euroflex These joints are registered with the UK Highways Agency, the Scottish Executive and the Welsh Assembly for use on highway bridge decks (BD 33/94: Joint Type 5). These joints are reinforced elastomeric comprising of steel angles and a steel bridging plate system encased in a flexible elastomer. The movements that can be accommodated vary from 38mm to 330mm in structures including: All types of highway structures, car park decks, footbridges and podium decks (Universal Sealants UK Ltd, 2009). The Britflex ® BEJ Expansion Joint These joints are registered with the UK Highways Agency, Scottish Executive and Welsh Assembley for use on bridge decks on all classes of roads and motorways. (Department of Transport BD33/94: Joint Type 6). This system is ideal for maintenance projects where there is a need to replace failed systems. The major benefit of this system is its speed of assembly on-site (Universal Sealants UK Ltd, 2009). Londitudinal Joint (LJ) system This system has been developed to provide an effective method of sealing longitudinal expansion gaps and soffits. This joint accommodates both longitudinal and vertical movement and also provides a substantially watertight seal. The LJ joint system can be used as a waterproof cover joint or as a drainage channel under joint with the facility to install drainage outlets into the system (Universal Sealants UK Ltd, 2009). Table 3: Comparison between the various joints manufactured by USL. Joint Type Features Uniflex Expansion Joints Type 1-Buried joint under continuous surfacing Impervious to water and water vapour, long-lasting, simple design Joint Type Features Febajoints Type 2-Asphaltic Plug joint Provides optimum movement capacity of +/- 20mm, joint for use on highway bridges FEBA HM Expansion Joints Type 2-High Modulus Asphaltic Plug joint Can accommodate impact loads, maximum horizontal design movement of  ±20mm Nosing Joint system Type 4-Nosing with preformed compression seal Rapid Installation, No drilling of deck, can only be used in the situation where the gap at carriageway level does not exceed 65mm. Transflex, Waboflex and Euroflex Expansion Joints Type 5-Reinforced Elastomeric Accommodating movement from 38mm to 330mm. used for car park decks, footbridges, podium deck. Britflex ® BEJ Expansion Joints Type 6-Elastomeric in metal runners Rapid on site assembly, less future maintenance costs, easy to install Longitudinal Joints Longitudinal Joint System can accommodate both longitudinal and vertical movement, rapid installation, low maintenance, cost effective , watertight seal 1.8.4 Stirling Lloyd Stirling Lloyd specialise in the development, manufacture and application of high-performance waterproofing and structural protection membranes and systems. They deal with road and rail bridge decks and tunnels, to commercial building developments, car parks and highway maintenance solutions. Some of the joints manufactured by Stirling Lloyd include: Sentinel ® B This joint consists of a PVC flashing strip designed for various movement ranges. The flashing is bonded across the expansion gap and incorporated into the Eliminator ® water proofing system to form a continous waterproofing detail below

Cell Phone Use :: Technology Essays

Cell Phone Use With technology on the rise, an important issue of social interaction and communication has risen with it. Many people have become heavily dependent on technology, unable to make it through a normal day without it. Granted, technology has provided society with many beneficial inventions, and for that we are grateful; yet, the sense of community that once resided around our homes has seemed to have all but diminished. For every branch of expansion this new technology â€Å"tree† grows, a new root ensnaring society grows with it, causing us to become ever more dependent on technology. I have found that many people are oblivious to the clear cause and affect system that is inseparable from growing technology. Being a student at a Public University, I have noticed an increasing amount of students who talk on their cell phones between classes. It has gone unnoticed that this limits the amount of interaction among students on the campus. With people ranting all over the media about what great opportunities technology provides to reach those across the globe, I began to wonder if technology was actually holding a positive effect of society. I wanted to find out how others viewed the situation. I decided that a good way for this to be done was by survey. In conducting this survey, I chose to question twenty random students at James Madison University. The survey was given at the on campus food court, PC Dukes. Its purpose was to investigate the topic of cells phones, attempting to discover whether cell phones expand our everyday life or if they constrict us to our own individual world. While eighteen students of the twenty surveyed felt cell phones actually do expand their life, a more in depth look was necessary. Other questions on the survey (questions four, five, six, and nine) contradicted this statement. For example, ten students who found their life to be expanded felt that they would be more socially active if they did not have cell phones. To me, this shows that cell phones keep people from reaching out and meeting new friends. I feel this is largely due to the fact that with cell phones, people are extremely easy to get in touch with. By having this luxury, a small group of friends can stay closer and more sociable with each other rather than keeping a large group of friends.

Maxwell the Hero in Freak The Mighty Essay example -- Rodman Philbrick

In today's society there are lots of people that believe that dumb people can not accomplish anything in there whole life. From the book Freak the Mighty this point is proven wrong. Max and Kevin, are the two most important characters in Freak the Mighty, they can both be described as dynamic characters. Each of them goes through major changes that are revealed through their actions, and by what the author says about them. Maxwell embodies the archetype of the hero's journey. I will discuss this issue using the fact that he has a birth, a calling/journey, and a return. Maxwell has a birth from the archetype of the hero?s journey. Maxwell was born in Chivalry, Montana where his parents lived. At the age of four he saw his dad murder his mom and run away. From that day on, Maxwell lived with his grandparents. His grandparents always hated him and he was never loved since they saw him as the murderer?s son. So, Maxwell grew up alone and he lived in the basement of his grandparent?s home. His dad?s name was Killer Kane and he was told by everyone that both of his parents were dead. Although Maxwell lived with his grandparents he had no knowledge at all, he was very dumb, had no knowledge about anything, and he was really huge. Since everyone heard about his father Killer Kane, when Maxwell went to his school everyone thought he was mean just like his father but in reality he wouldn?t hurt a fly. Maxwell was also frequently sent to the principles office for not listening to the teacher when she was talking and for never paying attention. Maxwell has a calling/journey from the archetype of the hero?s journey. His calling was when he saw Freak all ways doing his work and never paying attention to anyone else accep... ...er saving his own and Iggy Lee?s life, Killer Kane was arrested. Maxwell has a return from the archetype of the hero?s journey. Maxwell returns by saving Iggy Lee?s life and his own. Maxwell gets all his love from his grandparents, because now they believe that he is not like his dad (Killer Kane). When Maxwell returns, his best friend was about to die, because his organs were getting to big for his body, but while he was dieing he gives Maxwell a empty book saying, ?Max please write all the adventures and everything we have done together, this will make me feel better?. So, Maxwell is a hero by doing many things for many people. He saved a person that got him kidnapped (Iggy Lee), he saved his best friend from many strangers (Kevin), and he achieved something in his life. So, from all the things he has done, I believe that Maxwell is a true hero.

Relation of Group Performance to Age

Journal of Applied Psychology 2008, Vol. 93, No. 2, 392– 423 Copyright 2008 by the American Psychological Association 0021-9010/08/$12. 00 DOI: 10. 1037/0021-9010. 93. 2. 392 The Relationship of Age to Ten Dimensions of Job Performance Thomas W. H. Ng The University of Hong Kong Daniel C. Feldman The University of Georgia Previous reviews of the literature on the relationship between age and job performance have largely focused on core task performance but have paid much less attention to other job behaviors that also contribute to productivity.The current study provides an expanded meta-analysis on the relationship between age and job performance that includes 10 dimensions of job performance: core task performance, creativity, performance in training programs, organizational citizenship behaviors, safety performance, general counterproductive work behaviors, workplace aggression, on-the-job substance use, tardiness, and absenteeism. Results show that although age was largely unrelated to core task performance, creativity, and performance in training programs, it demonstrated stronger relationships with the other 7 performance dimensions.Results also highlight that the relationships of age with core task performance and with counterproductive work behaviors are curvilinear in nature and that several sample characteristics and data collection characteristics moderate age–performance relationships. The article concludes with a discussion of key research design issues that may further knowledge about the age–performance relationship in the future. Keywords: age, aging, older workers, job performance, meta-analysisAccording to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, the median age of the American workforce has been increasing over the last 30 years—35 years old in 1980, 37 years old in 1990, 39 years old in 2000, and 41 years old in 2006. This trend is also evident worldwide. For instance, International Labor Organization (2005) statistics indi cate that young adults between the ages of 20 and 24 were the largest segment of the working population in 1980. However, by 1990 the 30 –34 age group was the largest segment of the working population, and today the largest segment of the world’s working population is the age 40 – 44 cohort.Older workers are becoming an increasingly important concern for organizations for reasons beyond their sheer numbers. The shift to an older workforce has caused many organizations to spend more money on succession planning, pension benefits, health insurance, and medical benefits (Beehr & Bowling, 2002; Paul & Townsend, 1993). In addition, numerous organizations have concerns (and/or stereotypes) that older workers may exhibit lower productivity (Avolio & Waldman, 1994; Greller & Simpson, 1999; Hassell & Perrewe, 1995; Lawrence, 1996).For instance, compared with younger workers, older workers are stereotyped as being less physically capable, as more likely to have problems g etting along with coworkers, as preferring to invest more time in their families than in their jobs (Fung, Lai, & Ng, 2001; Paul & Townsend, 1993), as less technologically savvy, and as less willing to adapt quickly in volatile environments (Isaksson & Johansson, 2000; Riolli-Saltzman & Luthans, 2001). Thomas W. H.Ng, School of Business and Economics, The University of Hong Kong, Pok Fu Lam, Hong Kong; Daniel C. Feldman, Terry College of Business, The University of Georgia. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Thomas W. H. Ng, School of Business and Economics, The University of Hong Kong, Pok Fu Lam, Hong Kong. E-mail: [email  protected] hku. hk 392 Previous research has produced mixed results, however, regarding the precise relationship between age and job performance.In the three most-cited quantitative reviews of this literature, one found a moderate-sized positive relationship between age and performance (Waldman & Avolio, 1986), one found that age was largely unrelated to performance (McEvoy & Cascio, 1989), and the third found that the age–performance relationship took an inverted-U shape (Sturman, 2003). We believe that one reason for these mixed results is that much of the previous research on the age–performance relationship has focused rather narrowly on the performance of core task activities.As a result, past research has not closely examined the broad spectrum of behaviors that comprise â€Å"job performance† and the multiple ways in which age is related to work effectiveness. Over the past 2 decades, organizational researchers have been examining numerous other job-related behaviors that also legitimately fall under the rubric of job performance. These include the following: creativity, performance in training programs, organizational citizenship behaviors (OCBs), safety performance, counterproductive work behaviors, on-the-job substance use, workplace aggression, tardiness, and absence.Although mos t of these job behaviors could not be called core task activities per se (Organ, 1988), they do significantly affect organizational productivity by shaping the organizational cultures and environments in which core task performance takes place (Borman & Motowidlo, 1997). As such, examining a broader and more inclusive set of job performance measures may help clarify the complex relationship between age and performance. Mixed results on the age–performance relationship may also be partially attributable to the differing nature of research samples and data collection characteristics (Lawrence, 1996; S.R. Rhodes, 1983). For instance, research samples may vary in terms of the types of jobs workers perform, and as such, results may vary depending upon which skills older workers are required to utilize. AGE AND JOB PERFORMANCE 393 Similarly, because the nature of the work environment has changed substantially over the past 30 years, studies on the age–performance relationshi p conducted in the 1970s may have yielded very different results than studies conducted more recently. In addition, there may be differences in results depending upon whether data were collected cross-sectionally or longitudinally.For example, the effect of intraindividual aging on performance observed in longitudinal studies may be smaller in magnitude than the effect of broad age group differences observed in cross-sectional studies at any one point in time. Thus, examining the potential moderating effects of sample and data collection characteristics is not only important for research methodology purposes but for theoretical and practical reasons too. It allows us to identify the conditions under which age is likely to have positive, zero, or negative associations with various components of job performance.In the following section of the article, then, we briefly address some definitional issues, consider the results of previous quantitative reviews of the age–performance relationship, and discuss how the current study extends these previous reviews. Next, we present the results of an extended meta-analysis and provide evidence on the relationships between age and 10 performance dimensions. In the subsequent section, we examine the moderating effects of sample and data collection characteristics and also explore potential curvilinear relationships between age and performance dimensions.Finally, in the concluding section, we discuss the implications of our findings for future research and the management of older workers. Theoretical Background Definitional Issues Age versus aging. Age is a continuous variable and is used as such in our analyses. When we refer to age differences, we are referring to group-level differences between individuals at one age and individuals at another age. It is important to note here that, similar to previous quantitative reviews in this area of research (McEvoy & Cascio, 1989; Waldman & Avolio, 1986), the goal of the curr ent meta-analysis is not to isolate the effects of aging per se.That is, we are not directly examining the intraindividual aging process itself and how it relates to job performance. Instead, our goal is to examine the relationships between age and job performance dimensions across different cohorts and research contexts. For instance, is age, on average, related to job performance after taking into consideration different sample characteristics and research conditions? Is the relationship between age and core task performance stronger or weaker than the relationship between age and citizenship behavior? These are the kinds of questions we attempt to address here.Older workers. Who is considered an â€Å"older worker† has been debated in the literature for quite some time. In the retirement literature, older workers are often identified by having reached retirement age or by years until reaching retirement age (Beehr, 1986; Doeringer, 1990). Moreover, as Cleveland and Shore ( 1992) have noted, age can be defined in terms of an employee’s chronological age, the employee’s subjective age (the individual’s self-perception of age), the employee’s social age (others’ perceptions of the employee’s age), and the employee’s relative age (the egree to which the individual is older than others in the work group). Thus, the meaning of â€Å"old† depends, to some extent, on the demographic profiles of an organization or occupation (Shore, Cleveland, & Goldberg, 2003). Another definition that is frequently used in this literature is the legal definition of â€Å"older worker† provided by the U. S. Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967 (ADEA). This act prohibits discrimination against workers who are 40 years old or above.Although our data analyses use continuous measures of age wherever possible, in our discussion of â€Å"older workers† in the text, we generally rely on the ADEA definition for a variety of reasons. First, previous meta-analyses of age in the applied psychology literature have also utilized 40 years old as the cutoff age (Thornton & Dumke, 2005). Second, unlike authors in disciplines like gerontology and sociology (e. g. , Lindenberger & Baltes, 1997) who use high cutoff ages to make fine distinctions between the â€Å"young elderly† and â€Å"old elderly† (e. g. under and over age 85), scholars in the organizational sciences are particularly attuned to the fact that the age range in the active workforce is typically 16 – 65 years old (International Labor Organization, 2005). Thus, at least in terms of making a dichotomous split in the workforce, 40 years old appears to be an acceptable cutoff to distinguish between younger and older workers. Third, careers researchers have observed that age 40 typically marks the end of career establishment stage and the start of career maintenance stage (Super, 1980).As such, the chronological ag e of 40 often represents a major transition in career stages as well. Finally, defining older workers as 40 or above has some practical benefits because it directly aligns research findings regarding older workers to management implications regarding ADEA compliance in hiring, termination, performance evaluation, and promotion decisions. Undoubtedly over time, the definition of â€Å"older worker† will change. For example, the amendment of ADEA (by the Older Workers Benefit Protection Act of 1990 and the Civil Rights Act of 1991) to prohibit mandatory retirement ages may ultimately push back the age t which people retire (although labor statistics have not indicated any increases in retirement age as of yet). Even more likely, gains in life expectancy will change our conceptions of who is â€Å"middle-aged† and who is â€Å"old. † For our current purposes, though, the definition of older workers as being age 40 or older is consistent with both previous research and legal definitions and has the benefit of being â€Å"objectively† determined and verifiable across researchers and contexts. Previous Reviews of the Age–Performance RelationshipThree major quantitative reviews of this literature have been published in the last 25 years. Waldman and Avolio’s (1986) review is the earliest meta-analysis in this area. The authors identified 13 empirical studies containing 40 samples. They found that age was positively related to productivity measures of job performance (. 27). On the other hand, age was weakly but negatively related to supervisor ratings of job performance ( . 14). Furthermore, Waldman and Avolio found that the relationship between age and supervisor-rated job performance was stronger for nonprofessionals ( . 8) than for professionals ( . 05). Peer ratings of job performance were related to age at . 10. In sum, Waldman and Avolio (1986) illustrated that the sign of the relationship between age and task performan ce varies depend- 394 NG AND FELDMAN ing upon which measure of performance is being utilized, who does the performance ratings, and what kinds of jobs workers hold. To the extent that there is a drawback to this meta-analysis, it is the lack of availability of a large number of studies at that time.Meta-analyses that include too few cumulative studies may contain second-order sampling errors (Hunter & Schmidt, 1990). Addressing this drawback, McEvoy and Cascio (1989) identified 65 empirical studies (containing 96 samples) conducted on the relationship between age and performance. Across these 96 samples, the authors found that the mean correlation between age and job performance was quite low (. 06) and that the confidence intervals contained the value of zero. Unlike Waldman and Avolio (1986), McEvoy and Cascio found that type of performance rating (productivity vs. upervisory rating) and job type (professional vs. nonprofessional) did not moderate the relationship between age and performance. The different results observed in these two meta-analyses may be attributable to the different sets of studies the researchers considered, as McEvoy and Cascio located a wider range of empirical studies than Waldman and Avolio had included. Sturman’s (2003) meta-analysis hypothesized that the relationships of performance with three age-related variables (chronological age, job experience, and organizational tenure) were in the form of an inverted-U shape.With respect to the age–performance relationship, Sturman found that the corrected effect size across 115 empirical studies was . 03. Although this effect size is very small, he did find that this relationship was indeed an inverted-U shape. That is, age was positively related to job performance when age was low but was negatively related to job performance when age was high ( 49 years old). Below, we highlight the main evidence supporting these three different perspectives on the age–performance re lationship.Whereas earlier research on older workers largely focused on the negative relationship between age and task performance (S. R. Rhodes, 1983), more recently researchers have been examining the ways in which age can facilitate task performance or, at the minimum, not adversely affect it (Ebner, Freund, & Baltes, 2006; Kanfer & Ackerman, 2004). As a result, we have a much richer picture now of how age is positively or negatively related to core task performance but not as complete a picture of how age relates to a broad spectrum of other performance measures. unctions, that is, monitoring and controlling attention, suppressing irrelevant information, utilizing analytical reasoning, and updating information in working memory. Older individuals were found to perform much more poorly on this test battery than their younger counterparts. In general, M. G. Rhodes’s results suggest that older individuals may have more difficulties with complex tasks that require a high leve l of executive functioning. Indeed, there is also cumulative empirical evidence to indicate that older individuals do not do as well as younger individuals when performing multiple complex tasks simultaneously (Verhaeghen, Steitz,Sliwinski, & Cerella, 2003). Another area in which age appears to have negative association with performance is memory capacity. Previous meta-analyses have demonstrated a significant negative relationship between age and memory. For instance, older adults were found to have poorer recognition and recall memory than younger adults (La Voie & Light, 1994; Spencer & Raz, 1995; Verhaeghen, Marcoen, & Goosens, 1993). Moreover, as a result of these memory differences, employees are less likely to trust the memories of older coworkers.In an experimental study of attribution theory, for example, Erber and Danker (1995) found that participants expected memory-related performance problems of older workers to continue longer than those of younger workers and were les s likely to recommend training when â€Å"problem† employees were older. Above and beyond these differences in aptitudes and short-term memory, researchers have also found that older individuals may have less intense work motivation than their younger colleagues (S. R. Rhodes, 1983). For instance, Ebner et al. 2006) found that younger individuals are more likely to frame their goal orientations in terms of striving for gains (e. g. , I want to improve my fitness), whereas older individuals are more likely to frame their goal orientation around maintaining the status quo or preventing loss (e. g. , I do not want my fitness to deteriorate). These changes in motivation may also be linked to lower productivity on the job. Evidence Supporting Positive or Neutral Relationships of Age With Performance The above literature paints a rather pessimistic view of the relationship of age with job performance.Nonetheless, a strong case can also be made that older workers may exhibit at leas t the same, if not greater, job performance as their younger colleagues (Greller & Simpson, 1999). The rationale most frequently cited to support this case is that older workers substitute lengthy job experience and greater general expertise for speed of information acquisition and information recall. This wisdom and expertise, accumulated over the course of a career, may be sufficient to compensate for productivity losses due to any changes in cognitive and physical abilities (Baltes, Staudinger, Maercker, & Smith, 1995).Kanfer and Ackerman (2004) have emphasized that older age is often accompanied by increases in â€Å"crystallized† intelligence (experiential knowledge). Indeed, experimental evidence provides robust support for Kanfer and Ackerman’s assertion. For instance, Allen, Lien, Murphy, Sanders, and McCann (2002) found that older participants could multitask as effectively as younger participants, albeit at a slower pace. Artistico, Cervone, and Pezzuti (2003 ) found that older adults’ performance in solving problems exceeded that of younger adults when the problems were familiarEvidence Supporting Negative Relationships of Age With Performance Numerous studies have found support for the proposition that age negatively relates to cognitive functioning. For instance, in a large sample of 20,000 American workers across multiple occupational groups, Avolio and Waldman (1994) found that age was negatively related to several types of aptitudes, including general intelligence, verbal aptitude, numerical aptitude, spatial aptitude, form perception, clerical perception, motor coordination, finger dexterity, and manual dexterity.Thus, for jobs in which general cognitive abilities, visual-perceptual abilities, and psychomotor abilities are important components for superior job performance, Avolio and Waldman have suggested that age is negatively related to job performance. Furthermore, M. G. Rhodes (2004) found that there was a strong and s ignificant difference between older and younger adults in performance on a test battery measuring individuals’ executive AGE AND JOB PERFORMANCE 395 and representative of tasks frequently encountered.ColoniaWillner (1998) found that the best performing older employees had higher levels of tacit knowledge than their younger employees. Studies using different research designs have also found that professional expertise, developed over years of practice and experience, can attenuate potential negative relationships between age and performance dimensions (Hess & Auman, 2001; Lindenberger, Kliegl, & Baltes, 1992; Morrow, Leirer, Altieri, & Fitzsimmons, 1994; Thornton & Dumke, 2005; Wilson, Li, Bienias, & Bennett, 2006).Taken together, the research described above suggests that, after a slower pace of initial learning, older workers can reach the same performance levels as those of their younger colleagues and can multitask effectively. Moreover, when older workers are asked to sol ve familiar problems, higher self-efficacy beliefs are activated, and these beliefs can accelerate performance. Thus, although fluid intelligence, short-term working memory, and cognitive speed may decrease with age, deductive reasoning and professional expertise are likely to increase (Masunaga & Horn, 2001).Moreover, increased wisdom and judgment gained over years of service may increase older workers’ effectiveness in contextual performance activities as well. Creativity Creativity is the extent to which employees generate new and useful ideas for improving organizational productivity (Anderson, De Dreu, & Nijstad, 2004). For many jobs, creativity might be considered as a separate element of job performance, particularly when creativity relates to organizational adaptability and flexibility.For instance, some researchers have emphasized the importance of employees’ creativity as a critical component of an organization’s ability to adapt to rapidly changing bu siness environments (A. De Jonge & De Ruyter, 2004; Johnson, 2001). Consistent with this view of creativity as a key element of job effectiveness, a major study of performance evaluation systems found that some organizations evaluated employees on their innovativeness as well as on their core task performance (Welbourne, Johnson, & Erez, 1998). Performance in Training ProgramsOlder workers are often stereotyped as being somewhat resistant to change and slow in learning new material. For this reason, researchers have examined older workers’ performance in training programs as an element of job effectiveness (Martocchio, 1994). As Tracey, Tannenbaum, and Michael (1995) have suggested, organizations typically provide training to employees on the basis of the assumption that the short-run costs of the design and execution of training can be recouped through employees’ increased productivity in the long run.However, if employees do not perform well in training programs, it is highly unlikely that they will transfer that new knowledge to real work settings. Furthermore, when employees fail to learn in training programs, the expenses associated with training are wasted as well (Winfred, Bennett, Edens, & Bell, 2003). Expanding the Domain of the Performance Construct Previous reviews of the age–performance relationship have primarily focused on the performance of core tasks.According to Borman and Motowidlo (1997), core task performance is concerned with â€Å"the effectiveness with which job incumbents perform activities that contribute to the organization’s technical core† (p. 99). In addition to core task performance, however, we also examine nine other performance dimensions that comprise the two broad categories of job behaviors identified by Hunt (1996) as independent of the core job role, namely, citizenship behaviors and minimum performance behaviors.Citizenship behaviors are those extra behaviors engaged in by employees, ove r and above their core task requirements, that actively promote and strengthen the organization’s effectiveness (Organ, 1988). In this study, the first category is represented by such dimensions as employee creativity, performance in training programs, citizenship behaviors geared to different beneficiaries, and safety performance. In contrast, minimum performance behaviors are those that employees have to engage in (like attending work) or refrain from engaging in (like theft) to keep their jobs (Hunt, 1996).This second category is represented by such dimensions as general counterproductive work behaviors, workplace aggression, on-the-job substance use, tardiness, and absenteeism. Conceptually, there are certainly other behavioral dimensions that could be included under these two categories. For example, working long hours and demonstrating effective leadership are examples of additional citizenship behaviors that might be considered, whereas refraining from sexual harassmen t and manipulating stock prices are additional examples of minimum performance variables that could be considered.Empirically, however, a metaanalysis is constrained by the number of previous studies conducted on a specific relationship, and here we have included the nine dimensions identified above as the ones on which the most empirical studies are available. We discuss each of these additional nine dimensions of job performance in more detail below. OCBs Researchers have documented the importance of OCB for organizational functioning over the last 2 decades (LePine, Erez, & Johnson, 2002; Organ, 1988).OCBs (sometimes called prosocial behaviors or extrarole behaviors) are not job-specific but rather support the broader organizational environment in which core performance takes place (Motowidlo & Van Scotter, 1994; Organ, 1988). Examples of OCB are compliance with organizational norms, not complaining about trivial matters, and helping coworkers. Employees’ aggregated OCBs f requently benefit group, unit, and organizational productivity (Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Paine, & Bachrach, 2000). Safety PerformanceSafety performance is the extent to which employees comply with safety rules and demonstrate safe behaviors in the workplace (Parker, Axtell, & Turner, 2001). This performance dimension is particularly important in industries that require employee contact with hazardous materials, operation of heavy machinery, and extensive highway driving (Clarke & Robertson, 2005). Poor safety performance can have two distinct negative consequences for firms’ effectiveness. At the individual level, inattention to safety behaviors contributes to employee injuries; these injuries result in lower worker productivity and time lost from work.At the orga- 396 NG AND FELDMAN nizational level, poor safety practices contribute to potentially costly litigation. These claims create substantial financial burdens for firms in the event of serious employee accidents, dismember ments, and death (Hofmann & Morgeson, 1999). Both directly and indirectly, then, employee safety behaviors are an important component of job performance. General Counterproductive Work Behaviors Whereas research investigating OCB concentrates on what workers can do to romote smooth organizational functioning, research on workplace deviance examines how the lack of counterproductive work behaviors is essential to maintaining smooth organizational functioning (Neuman & Baron, 1998). Counterproductive work behaviors are intentional employee acts that harm organizations’ legitimate business interests (Bennett & Robinson, 2000). Examples of counterproductive work behaviors include working on personal matters instead of assigned tasks, neglecting supervisors’ instructions, stealing property, starting or repeating rumors and gossip, and using unprofessional language.It is easy to see the multiple ways in which these counterproductive work behaviors can reduce both individual and group performance. Moreover, Dalal (2005) found that employees who frequently engaged in counterproductive work behaviors were also less likely to demonstrate OCBs. son, 2000; Martocchio, 1989). Researchers have documented numerous negative effects of employee absence on organizational productivity (Harrison & Martocchio, 1998). When employees are absent from work, the completion of their own work is slowed down.Coworkers are often called upon to cover for absent employees, thereby distracting them from completing their own assignments. In cases in which task interdependence among a group of workers is high, the whole team’s progress may be affected when an employee is chronically absent or absent for extended periods of time. As with tardiness, frequent absences can also adversely affect organizational productivity by creating an â€Å"absence culture† in which more and more employees consider being absent acceptable (rather than counterproductive) behavior (Johns & Xie, 1998).Summary. Before we can draw strong conclusions about the relationship of age to job performance, then, it is important to consider citizenship behaviors and minimum performance behaviors in addition to core task performance. In light of the above literature review, we include 10 dimensions of job performance in the current meta-analysis: core task performance, creativity, performance in training programs, OCB, safety performance, general counterproductive work behaviors, workplace aggression, on-thejob substance use, tardiness, and absenteeism.From this point on, we use the phrase â€Å"job performance† to represent these 10 dimensions collectively. Specific Counterproductive Work Behaviors In addition to general counterproductive work behaviors, four specific forms of counterproductive work behavior have been discussed separately and extensively in the literature. We also examine these four specific counterproductive work behaviors— workplace aggression, on-the-job substance use, tardiness, and absenteeism—in the present meta-analysis. Workplace aggression.Workplace aggression consists of employees’ efforts to harm others with whom they work, harm the reputation of their current employers, or harm former colleagues and previous employers (Lapierre, Spector, & Leck, 2005). Acts of workplace aggression can cause bodily harm to employees, pose physical danger for customers, create public relations crises, and harm the business reputation of the firm as a whole. On-the-job substance use. On-the-job substance use involves drinking alcohol or taking illegal drugs at work or during work time (Frone, 2003).Researchers have found that on-the-job substance use hampers individuals’ decision-making abilities; increases the frequency of dysfunctional job behaviors; and puts coworkers, supervisors, and customers at increased risk of injury (Lehman & Simpson, 1992). Tardiness. Tardiness is lateness for work (Blau, 1994; Koslo wsky, Sagie, Krausz, & Singer, 1997). Employee tardiness is likely to create both direct financial costs to organizations (e. g. , decreased time on productive activities) and indirect financial costs (e. g. , time lost by coworkers waiting for late colleagues. . Left unchecked, numerous cases of tardiness can lead to a â€Å"culture of tardiness† (Koslowsky et al. , 1997) in which employees come to see being late as an acceptable behavior rather than as a deviant one. Absenteeism. Skipping work has also been conceptualized as a form of employee counterproductive behavior (Bennett & Robin- Moderator Relationships Another way in which the present study contributes to the literature is by investigating how different sample and design characteristics moderate the relationship between age and job performance.Many of these characteristics have been discussed in the literature as variables that can affect age–performance relationships (Lawrence, 1996; S. R. Rhodes, 1983; Sho re et al. , 2003; Sturman, 2003) and as potential explanations for inconsistent research findings in the area. Sample Characteristics In this study, we examine the potential moderating effects of the average age, age dispersion, job tenure, and organizational tenure of research samples.Testing for average sample age as a moderator essentially examines whether the form of the relationship between age and performance is linear or curvilinear (see Sturman, 2003). Testing the moderating role of age dispersion associated with the sample (operationalized as the standard deviation of age in the sample) assesses whether the age–performance relationship varies across samples with different degrees of age homogeneity. Testing for average job tenure and average organizational tenure examines whether the age–performance relationship varies across samples with different (average) tenures.In general, these four sample characteristics might influence authors’ definitions of â €Å"old† in a particular setting. We also examine the potential moderating effects of job complexity. The job complexity of the sample is important to consider here because it influences the extent to which the specific job skills required on jobs are associated with age-related performance problems. For the same reason, we also consider two related variables, namely, proportion of college degree holders and proportion of AGE AND JOB PERFORMANCE 397 managers in the sample.It is likely that older workers with more education or who hold managerial roles may have greater ability to substitute accumulated knowledge and judgment for precise technical skills. As such, the results of research on age–performance relationships may vary across samples with different mixes of college graduates and managers. In a more exploratory fashion, we also examine the effects of proportion of women and proportion of Caucasians in the sample. Gender and race have frequently been studied as i ndependent or control variables in previous research on aging, but here we consider their potential moderating effects instead.Examining these two â€Å"proportion† moderators assesses whether the age–performance relationship varies across samples with different proportions of women and Caucasians. of 1993 may have changed the ways in which organizations distinguish between â€Å"absence† and â€Å"leave† before and after that year. Similarly, the amended ADEA prohibits mandatory retirement ages, which might have changed the relationship between age and performance over time because of a potential change in the proportion of older workers in the labor force.Collectively, then, these changes may have affected the context in which older workers perform and thus the relationship of age to performance as well. Method Literature Search We performed a comprehensive search for those articles published during or before December 2006 that examined the relationship between age and job performance. Other published studies that did not aim at investigating this specific relationship but reported their effect sizes nonetheless were also included. We also searched for unpublished studies and dissertations to reduce the â€Å"file-drawer problem† (Rosenthal, 1979).We began our literature search by using the following keywords: age, job performance, task performance, productivity, creativity, innovation, training effectiveness, training performance, contextual performance, citizenship behavior, prosocial behavior, extrarole behavior, safety, injuries, accidents, counterproductive behavior, deviance, deviant behavior, aggression, aggressive behavior, violence, violent behavior, substance use, drinking, alcohol, drug, tardiness, lateness, absenteeism, absence, and job complexity.We searched in numerous research databases, including Dissertation Abstracts International, EBSCOHost, Emerald, Factiva, JSTOR, Oxford Journals, Proquest, PsycINFO, Sc ienceDirect, Sage Full-Text Collections, and several Wiley InterScience databases. Furthermore, the reference lists of recent meta-analyses that focused on criterion variables of interest were examined carefully to locate other relevant articles. These included, for instance, reference lists from meta-analyses on OCB (LePine et al. , 2002), absence (Martocchio, 1989), task performance (Judge, Thoresen, Bono, & Patton, 2001), work injuries (Clarke & Robertson, 2005), and ounterproductive work behavior (Dalal, 2005). Such metaanalyses contained comprehensive and current reference lists in their respective research fields. Four inclusion and exclusion criteria were set prior to the start of the article search. First, we included field studies in which the age–job performance relationship occurred naturally, whereas laboratory studies were excluded. It is much more difficult to gather measures on performance dimensions besides core task performance in experimental settings (e. g. , lateness and absence).In addition, we had some concern that core task performance observed in laboratory studies might be partially attributable to the strength and form of the experimental manipulations themselves. Second, studies that examined age or performance only at the team level or organization level were excluded because our focus in this research is on individual behavior rather than group-level performance. Third, to avoid double counting, we excluded those studies in which authors used the same data set and reported the same correlations as in their other published studies.Fourth, we included studies that involved four types of performance ratings: ratings by Data Collection Characteristics We examine the moderating effects of two data collection characteristics in particular: (a) whether data were collected longitudinally or cross-sectionally, and (b) the publication year of articles. Both these moderators address the role of time in the age–performance relati onship. Cross-sectional data collection allows researchers to examine the extent to which there are group-level age differences (between different age cohorts) in job performance across different samples and research contexts.In contrast, longitudinal data collection helps shed light on the extent to which intraindividual aging is related to job performance (Baltes, Schaie, & Nardi, 1971; Schaie & Hofer, 2001). Results may vary, then, depending upon how the data in a study were collected. For instance, the effect of intraindividual aging on performance may be subtle and gradual, but the differences in performance between broad age groups at one point in time can be quite large. Thus, we examine the distinction between cross-sectional and longitudinal data collection as a potential moderator here. It should be noted that to truly examine the effect of aging on erformance, it would be ideal to focus the meta-analysis on longitudinal studies alone. However, there are too few articles a vailable to conduct a meta-analysis on only longitudinal studies; in fact, only 12% of the articles on this topic have been longitudinal in nature. Further, even if we tried to examine only longitudinal studies, the time period examined in those studies does not exceed 5 years, and the average period of time examined in those studies is only about 1 year. Thus, these studies generally do not use long enough time spans to capture intraindividual aging either.Thus, our database here largely consists of cross-sectional studies, allowing us to get an overall picture of the strength of various age–performance links, considering the variation in the specific performance measures, sample characteristics, and data collection characteristics. We revisit the limitations of cross-sectional data collection in conducting research involving age in more detail later in the article. The year a particular study was published is used here as a rough proxy for the nature of the work environment at the time a study was conducted.For instance, the last 2 decades have seen increased reliance on career self-management (Arthur & Rousseau, 1996), which may have loosened workers’ attachment to long-time employers and increased workers’ willingness to change careers later in life. The introduction of the Family and Medical Leave Act 398 NG AND FELDMAN supervisors, ratings by others (peers, subordinates, and customers), self-ratings, and objective measures. This allowed us to examine the moderating role of sources of rating in the age–performance relationship.With the above search criteria, our search yielded a total of 380 empirical studies, which collectively contain 438 independent samples. Thirteen studies were unpublished dissertations. Of the studies, 14% were published before 1990, 30% of the studies were published between 1990 and 1999, and the remaining 56% were published between 2000 and 2006. The average age across all samples that provided age info rmation was 36. 6 years old (ranged between 17 and 59 years old with a standard deviation of 8. 8 years). The list of studies is provided in the Appendix. Measures of Key ConstructsCreativity. Previous studies have measured creativity either via self-ratings or ratings by others; we used these two categories in the meta-analysis as well. Sample items of typical Likert-scale measures of creativity include the following: â€Å"creating new ideas for improvements†; â€Å"searching out new working methods, techniques, or instruments†; and â€Å"generating original solutions to problems† (Janssen, 2001). It should be noted that we did not differentiate between creativity and innovation (Anderson et al. , 2004); both types of measures are included in our study.Performance in training programs. Here, we focused on studies that involved training of adults on tasks that have at least some relevance in organizational contexts. Furthermore, only studies that had an explici t training intervention and had measured posttraining performance, competence, or learning were included. Measures of training performance consisted of either ratings given by supervisors or performance on posttraining tests. Studies that assessed employees’ participation in computer usage training are representative of the kinds of research articles included in this meta-analysis (e. . , Martocchio, 1994). Other example studies include training programs that teach specific competences or subject-related knowledge (e. g. , law or health care). Although our decision to include only studies that measured posttraining performance gave us a consistent perspective on the effects of training on performance, as we discuss later, the resulting set of studies was likely overrepresented by technology training programs in which older workers might be less likely to excel. OCBs. We included two types of OCB in the meta-analysis.The first set of studies examined general OCBs and did not d ifferentiate among beneficiaries of those OCBs. The second set of studies examined OCBs geared to three specific beneficiaries: other people on the job, the employer organization as a whole, and the tasks themselves. These subtypes have been identified by previous researchers as reasonable groupings of behaviors in this domain (LePine et al. , 2002). According to LePine et al. (2002), examples of OCB directed to others are helping colleagues with their work and orienting newcomers.Examples of organization-directed OCB are compliance with organizational norms and not complaining about trivial matters. Examples of task-directed OCB are spending extra effort and persistence on the job and trying hard to improve personal and group performance. It should be noted, too, that within each of these three subtypes, we further differentiated self-ratings from ratings by others. Safety performance. With respect to the measurement of safety performance, three major indicators have frequently bee n used in previous research and were included in the present metaanalysis.First, some studies have measured the frequency of work injuries via archival industrial health records. For instance, Hofmann and Morgeson (1999) measured workplace injuries by using the company’s archival records of injuries or accidents that occurred in the previous 12-month period. Second, other studies have utilized self-report measures of frequency of work injuries. A third set of studies have measured self-reported levels of compliance with safety procedures and practices. A sample item from this kind of measure is â€Å"Occasionally I bend the safety rules when I know it’s safe to do so (reverse coded)† (Parker et al. 2001). General counterproductive work behaviors. Most studies have measured general counterproductive work behaviors without differentiating targets, that is, without specifying the target of the counterproductive behavior. A few studies have differentiated between co unterproductive work behaviors directed at specific others and those directed at the organization as a whole (e. g. , Liao, Joshi, & Chuang, 2004). However, because of the small number of studies making this distinction, the current meta-analysis did not differentiate between these two categories of studies.In those few studies that reported both interpersonal and organizational counterproductive work behaviors, we averaged the correlations to obtain an estimate of general counterproductive work behavior. Sample Likert items of measures of general counterproductive work behaviors include the following: â€Å"I keep important information away from my boss† and â€Å"I openly compromise with others but delay implementing the compromise until my own objectives are accomplished† (Duffy, Ganster, & Shaw, 1998). Here, too, we differentiated between self-ratings of counterproductive work behavior and ratings by others.Workplace aggression. As mentioned above, four specific ty pes of counterproductive work behaviors have frequently been measured in previous research on this topic, and therefore we examined these four specific types of counterproductive behavior in more depth. Measures of workplace aggression typically ask respondents to indicate the frequency of occurrence of aggressive behaviors, such as yelling, swearing at others, damaging others’ property, and fighting (Glomb & Liao, 2003). All the studies we located utilized self-reported measures.On-the-job substance use. These measures typically ask respondents to indicate the frequency of on-the-job use of alcohol or drugs (Frone, 2003). Here, too, all the studies identified utilized self-ratings. Tardiness. Tardiness is typically measured in two ways. In the first, employees are asked self-report questions like â€Å"How often are you late from work? (never to constantly)† (Hanisch & Hulin, 1990). In the second, archival measures of lateness are obtained directly from personnel reco rds (Conte & Jacobs, 2003).We included both self-report and archival measures of tardiness in the meta-analysis. Absenteeism. Absenteeism has been measured in three different ways in previous research. The first group of studies measure general absenteeism; these studies do not differentiate between when employees are absent because of sickness or for purely discretionary reasons (Xie & Johns, 2000). Other studies in this line of research measure either the number of days absent from work in a given period (absence duration) or the frequency of AGE AND JOB PERFORMANCE 99 absence spells in a given period (absence frequency). Because these indices are all closely related (Conte & Jacobs, 2003), they are aggregated together in the present meta-analysis. A second research stream includes studies that measure sickness absenteeism. As an example, J. De Jonge, Reuvers, Houtman, and Kompier (2000) computed sickness absence as the number of separate spells of sickness absence during 1 full c alendar year. Researchers have traditionally viewed absenteeism due to sickness as involuntary absence (Dalton & Todor, 1993).The third, and last, group of absence studies consists of those that measure nonsickness-related absenteeism. For instance, Vigoda (2001, p. 1499) asked respondents to report â€Å"their estimates of days missed work (during the previous year) for reasons other than sickness. † As another example, Deery, Erwin, and Iverson (1999) obtained personnel records of frequency of nonmedically certified absences during the prior 12-month period. In contrast to sickness-related absence, researchers have generally viewed nonsickness-related absence as an indicator of voluntary withdrawal behavior (Dalton & Todor, 1993).Meta-Analytical Procedures Hunter and Schmidt’s (1990) meta-analysis technique, which requires corrections for both measurement error and sampling error, was used. Because there is no theoretical reason to believe the measurement of age woul d contain measurement error, we followed the practice of previous researchers (Martocchio, 1989) and did not disattenuate the measurement of age in individual studies. On the other hand, the behavioral measures of job performance did require disattenuation to remove the influence of measurement errors.Disattenuation of core task performance. Some researchers have reasoned that it is more appropriate to use interrater reliability to correct for imperfect measurement when task performance is rated by others (i. e. , not by oneself; Judge et al. , 2001; Schmidt & Hunter, 1996; Viswesvaran, Ones, & Schmidt, 1996). In contrast, other researchers argue that measures of intrarater reliability (that is, alpha coefficients or internal consistency estimates) are more appropriate in this regard (Murphy & De Shon, 2000).In light of these different perspectives on disattentuation, we disattenuated the observed correlations for either imperfect intrarater reliability or imperfect interrater relia bility. We first corrected studies for the lack of perfect intrarater reliability in the measurement of core task performance. Because different studies may measure the same construct using different scales, this disattenuation process also adjusts for the different levels of measurement error contained in different scales (Hunter & Schmidt, 1990).This type of correction requires the use of alpha coefficients (i. e. , internal consistency estimates) reported in individual studies. If no alpha value was reported for a particular scale in a study, an average alpha value calculated from the rest of the studies using the same scale was taken as a substitute (Judge et al. , 2001). The above procedure for correction for imperfect intrarater reliability was performed on all self-report measures and on all measures provided by supervisors, peers, and customers.We corrected studies for imperfect interrater reliability when core task performance was measured via ratings by others (i. e. , not via self-reports). This type of correction required the use of interrater reliability estimates. Unfortunately, many studies included in the meta-analysis did not report these estimates. Therefore, following Judge et al. (2001), for studies that used supervisors as the rating source, we disattenuated the correlations using the metaanalytical estimate of the reliability of supervisor-rated job performance provided by Viswesvaran et al. (1996).For studies that used peers to rate job performance, we disattenuated the correlations using the meta-analytical estimate of the reliability of peer-rated job performance. Because there is a lack of research on interrater reliability associated with less frequently-used raters (i. e. , customers, subordinates, students, or spouses), in these cases we utilized as a proxy estimate the average of the meta-analytical estimate of the reliability of supervisor-rated performance and that of peerrated job performance. As noted earlier, several studies utilized objective measures of core task performance (e. g. quantity of output, sales volume, errors made). Although the notion of interrater and intrarater reliability does not apply to objective measures, it should be noted that these objective measures are still likely to contain some measurement error and might vary depending upon the job complexity of the sample (Sturman, Cheramie, & Cashen, 2005). Because studies seldom reported any kind of reliability estimates for objective measures of core task performance, as a substitute we adopted the meta-analytical estimate of the test–retest reliability of the objective measure of job performance provided by Sturman et al. 2005). Sturman et al. calculated two separate estimates of the reliability of objective task performance, one for jobs of low complexity (e. g. , secretary) and one for jobs of high complexity (e. g. , engineer). For those studies that sampled mixed job complexity types, we used the average value of Sturman e t al. ’s two estimates as the proxy. Disattenuation of other performance measures. The disattenuation of the observed correlations between age and the remaining dimensions of job performance largely followed the protocols outlined above.For instance, for self-ratings of creativity, OCB, counterproductive work behaviors, workplace aggression, tardiness, and absence, we corrected for imperfect intrarater reliability using either alpha coefficients (if provided) or an average alpha value based on the remaining studies that used the same scales (if alpha was not provided). For nonself ratings of these performance dimensions, in addition to correcting for imperfect intrarater reliability using the above procedure, we also corrected for imperfect interrater reliability using Viswesvaran et al. s (1996) metaanalytical estimates of the reliability of job performance. Finally, for performance measures that were objective in nature (e. g. , training test scores and company records of w ork injuries, lateness, and absence), we used Sturman et al. ’s (2005) meta-analytical estimate of test–retest reliability of the objective performance measure as a substitute. Corrections for sampling errors. The second step in the metaanalysis was correction for sampling errors. Here, we calculated the sample size-weighted corrected correlation. A corrected correlation was judged to be significant at . 5 when its 95% confidence interval did not include the value of zero. Moderator Analyses Subgroup moderator analyses. Two approaches to moderator testing were used. The first one was subgroup analysis; this ap- 400 NG AND FELDMAN proach was taken when the moderator variables were categorical in nature (e. g. , longitudinal vs. cross-sectional data collection). The coding of most of these categorical moderator variables is self-explanatory. The coding for the job complexity and age moderators, though, requires some further explanation.In the case of job complexity, two researchers were responsible for the coding. The coding process was guided by previous metaanalyses that also coded job complexity (e. g. , Avolio & Waldman, 1990; Salgado et al. , 2003; Wood, Mento, & Locke, 1987). Specifically, the two raters classified each sample occupation into high and low job complexity according to the general intelligence, verbal ability, and numerical ability required to perform the job (Avolio & Waldman, 1990). Interrater agreement was 93%. In situations in which there was disagreement, discussion was used to reach consensus.The Dictionary of Occupational Titles (1991) was used to assist in these discussions, too, because jobs in the Dictionary of Occupational Titles are coded and classified according to several dimensions (e. g. , data, people, and things) that reflect job complexity (Avolio & Waldman, 1990; Salgado et al. , 2003). Examples of â€Å"high complexity† jobs are researchers, accountants, business consultants, psychiatrists, engineers, managers/executives, financial analysts, nurses, IT professionals, and teachers. â€Å"Low complexity† jobs include clerks, restaurant workers, highway maintenance workers, truck drivers, and receptionists.In those cases in which we needed to examine the differences across different age subgroups, we sorted studies into four groups on the basis of the average age of the sample: less than 30 years old, 31–35, 36 – 40, and over 40 years old. The reason underlying this categorization is four-fold. First, it approximately equalized the number of studies contained in each group. Second, previous research on life-span development has suggested that the time before 30 years old is often a period within which individuals explore careers, whereas the time after 40 years old roughly marked the end of establishment years (Super, 1980).Third, ADEA also uses 40 as the â€Å"cutoff age. † Last, much of the previous research on age and job performance has used decade o r halfdecade benchmarks. Regression-based moderator testing. In other cases, the original studies did not provide sufficient sample information with which to categorize moderators. For these moderator variables, therefore, regression-based moderator testing was used. To illustrate the statistical procedures, we utilize the example of â€Å"proportion of women† (i. e. , gender).We tested the plausibility of gender as a moderator by investigating the effect of the percentage of women in the sample (which was a continuous variable) on the observed relationship between age and job performance (cf. Ng, Eby, Sorensen, & Feldman, 2005). In essence, we used the percentage of women in the sample as an independent variable, in a weighted least squares multiple regression, to predict the correlation coefficients for the age–job performance relationship. If the percentage of women in the sample as a significant predictor of a relationship between age and a dimension of job perform ance, then it would suggest that gender moderated that relationship. It should be noted that, among the eight sample characteristics on which we applied this regression approach, only average age, age dispersion, average job tenure, and average organizational tenure of the sample were truly continuous variables per se. The remaining characteristics (proportion of degree holders, managers, women, and Caucasians) were proxies for sociodemographic variables that are typically measured as categorical variables at the individual level.Nonetheless, this regression technique for testing for moderators in meta-analyses has been found to be more reliable and robust than alternative methods for dealing with this analysis challenge (Steel & Kammeyer-Mueller, 2002). Results The meta-analysis results for the relationships between age and the 10 performance dimensions are presented in Table 1. Relationships Between Age and Job Performance Core task performance. We found that age was largely unrel ated to core task performance. It was related to supervisor-rated task performance at . 02 (. 03 when corrected for interrater reliability), objective measures of task performance at . 3, and self-rated task performance at . 06. Age was unrelated to core task performance as rated by peers and others. Creativity. Age was not significantly related to creativity. Age was neither related to employee creativity as rated by supervisor (. 01; . 02 when corrected for interrater reliability) nor to selfreports of creativity ( . 01). Performance in training programs. We found that age had a weak, negative relationship with performance in training programs ( . 04). That is, older workers’ performance in training programs was found to be slightly lower than that of younger workers. General and specific types of OCB.On the other hand, age demonstrated significant and positive relationships with OCB. With respect to general OCB (i. e. , OCB that did not differentiate among or specify targe ts), age was related to ratings by others at . 06 (. 08 when corrected for interrater reliability) and to selfratings at . 08. Examining studies that differentiated targets of OCB revealed some interesting results. With respect to OCB directed at others, age was related to ratings by others at . 05 (. 06 when corrected for interrater reliability) and to self-ratings at . 07. With respect to OCB directed at organizations, age was related to ratings by others at . 6 (. 08 when corrected for interrater reliability) and to selfratings at . 14. With respect to OCB directed at tasks, age was related to ratings by others at . 21 (. 27 when corrected for interrater reliability) and to self-ratings at . 13. Safety performance. Age also demonstrated significant relationships with safety behavior. Specifically, age was positively related to self-rated compliance with safety rules and procedures at . 10. Furthermore, it was negatively related to objective frequency measures of work injuries at . 08 and to self-rated frequency of work injuries at . 03.General counterproductive work behavior. Age was significantly and negatively related to general counterproductive work behaviors. Most studies have measured general counterproductive work behaviors without differentiating targets. Age was negatively related to these ratings of counterproductive work behaviors given by others (supervisors/peers) at . 09 ( . 12 when corrected for interrater reliability) and to self-ratings at . 12. Specific counterproductive work behaviors. Moreover, older workers appear to engage in less workplace aggression, on-the-job substance use, and tardiness in particular. Age was negativelyAGE AND JOB PERFORMANCE 401 Table 1 Meta-Analytical Relationships Between Age and Job Performance Variable Core task performance Supervisor-rated (Corrected for interrater reliability) Rated by peers and others (Corrected for interrater reliability) Objective measures Self-rated Creativity Rated by supervisor or obj ective measures (Corrected for interrater reliability) Self-rated Performance in training programs Rated by supervisor or objective measures OCB General (undifferentiated targets) Rated by supervisors, peers, or others (Corrected for interrater reliability) Self-rated Directed at othersRated by supervisors, peers, or others (Corrected for interrater reliability) Self-rated Directed at organization Rated by supervisors, peers, or others (Corrected for interrater reliability) Self-rated Directed at tasks Rated by supervisors, peers, or others (Corrected for interrater reliability) Self-rated Safety performance Self-rated compliance with safety rules Objective frequency of work injuries Self-rated frequency of work injuries General counterproductive work behavior (undifferentiated targets or types) Rated by supervisor or peers (Corrected for interrater reliability) Self-rated Self-rated workplace aggression Self-rated on-the-job substance use Tard

Cisneros’ House on the Mango Street: Beauty Comes from Within

Sometimes it is difficult to live through the travails of what life has to offer for all of us. For some who are unlucky, they have to go through numerous trials and tribulations in order to survive the rigors of poverty, dysfunctional families and societal problems. However, when we learn to see the bright side of everything, we will realize that all these bitter and difficult experiences in life can be beautiful and meaningful for us. Without these, we would not attain success or learn about our mistakes that make all of us better and stronger people. As a quote from Sandra Cisneros’ The House on the Mango Street (1989) goes — â€Å"Butterflies too are few and so are flowers and most things that are beautiful. Still, we take what we can get and make the best of it†, this means that we can all live through seeing things as beautiful and essential. What is important is that we value the things that we have and it is up to us to make our lives better than what we deserve. Sandra Cisneros’ The House on the Mango Street weaves a thought-provoking, coming-of-age tale of a young girl. She is not only struggling to grow up to become a fine lady like usual American girls, but she is faced with shame, guilt and disappointment as her family is embarking on to acquire a new home in America. As the story comes to a full circle, the readers would inevitably commiserate with how the girl dealt with the scenarios she had faced. She did not only have to go through the complicated journey with her family to their new home, but she has to deal with the big disappointment that their new house is not what she hoped for. These difficulties definitely fanned some fire inside her – to become more determined and strive harder in the future. In the end, readers could predict her utter frustration why things are always tough for immigrant people like them in America. In the story, Esperanza’s family has to undergo an awkward transition of looking for a permanent place to live. Readers will immediately infer that the young girl’s family has Chicano roots because the girl enumerated the members of the family in beginning her story — Papa, Mama, Carlos, Kiki and Nenny. What’s admirable about Cisnero’s conversational style of story-writing is that everyone can relate to their experiences. At one point in anyone’s life, we all can identify with the travails of going through a house transfer. Anyone’s initial reaction will be to feel excited of how our new house will look like or who our new neighbors will be. Unfortunately, for the young girl, she is bound to be betrayed by her own expectations. When Esperanza’s father announced that they are getting a new house in Mango Street, she expected that it will be in the usual American neighborhood with homes that have freshly-mown lawns and white picket fences. For the Esperanza, Mango Street is more than street sign — it is her marker that circumscribes the dream that she and her family had brought with them. This new house will simply be one aspect of attaining their dream — to have a more comfortable life in this new place, in this new country. However, when she saw the house in Mango Street, she was disappointed. She becomes aware of her own subjective perceptions as she begins to differentiate her family’s wonderful dreams and society’s ugly realities. Thus, she becomes conscious of her parents’ inability to fulfill their promises of the perfect house. She thought that â€Å"They always told us that one day we would move into a house, a real house† (p. 223). However, the â€Å"real house† the narrator expected would be â€Å"like the houses on TV† Apparently, when the narrator saw the house on Mango Street, it transformed from being a symbol of hope to become a symbol of poverty. The narrator associates this realization with the humiliation she has felt in the past, when her family lived in similar places. However, Esperanza realized that she can go beyond her expectations and she could make herself a better person, despite her roots and the community she’s living in. Esperanza began seeing all the positive things around her to make her a stronger person. You can be poor but you still can do good in your studies and excel to become a successful lawyer. You can be a Latina and not get pregnant to become a young mother, but you can strive to achieve your dreams of becoming a great artist someday. Thus, in the story, we can learn that there is beauty in everything that we have. It is just up to us to use these things wisely to make the best out of it. Works Cited Cisneros, Sandra. The House on Mango Street. New York: Vintage Books, Inc. 1989.